Discussion can be a powerful means of enabling students to engage actively with course material and develop their own views based on sound critical thinking. Or it can be a teacher’s worst nightmare, in which students stare back blankly, waiting for someone else to take the initiative. Unlike many good dinner conversations, classroom discussions are purposeful and require preparation. Having a good class discussion depends on four basic factors:

• The discussion must have a purpose.
• Students must have something to say.
• Students must feel comfortable participating.
• Meaningful questions must be asked.

If you find discussions are lagging, look for a weakness in one or more of these factors. Here are a few specific suggestions for improving discussion.

Giving the discussion a purpose

• Identify objectives for each day’s discussion (e.g., evaluate student understanding of course material, help students understand and remember course material, help students develop critical thinking skills relative to the course material, practice problem-solving, apply a theory or principle to a case study); plan questions and preparatory activities accordingly.
• Make explicit how discussion fits into the course as a whole. (Is it the primary means of explicating reading assignments? Are discussion topics related to writing assignments? And the ever-popular: Will it be on the test?)
• Place each discussion in context: how does it fit with previous topics, and with those to come?
• Clarify purpose when bringing closure to the discussion: summarize key points (or ask students to do this in a written paragraph); ask students to write down a question they are left with at the close of discussion (and try to come back to these at an appropriate time).

Helping students have something to say

• Have students write, either in or outside of class, to generate ideas for discussion. Give them a specific question or problem to address.
• Have each student come to class with a written question related to the day’s discussion topic.
• Give students a brief questionnaire as a basis for starting discussion.
• Use small group discussion to encourage all students to make a commitment about the discussion topic. Bring the class back together to synthesize various groups’ reactions. Groups can all discuss the same question, or each group can be assigned a specific part of a problem or task.
• Taking sides: Two sides may emerge out of discussion, or the teacher can pose them at beginning. This may be done physically by calling for a “division of the house” (students must physically change sides if changing their minds). Note: only use “division of the house” if you are confident there will be a good showing on both sides—otherwise students taking the unpopular side will feel conspicuous and isolated.
• Brainstorming: Initiate discussion by asking students to uncritically generate ideas, which are written on the board/overhead. The discussion can then proceed to organize, synthesize, or evaluate the ideas generated.

Encouraging students to feel comfortable participating

• Provide opportunities for students to get to know one another.
• Have an “icebreaker” activity early in the quarter.
• If discussion will be a significant activity of the class, start the quarter with something everyone will want to discuss (e.g., something popular or controversial) to get students used to participating.
• Provide a written set of ground rules for discussion (or have the class generate these rules as a group).
• Control discussion monopolizers to give everyone a chance to participate.
  
• Reward participation with both verbal and non-verbal cues (“Thank you.” “That’s a good point.” “Would anyone else care to comment?” Nodding and maintaining eye contact.)
  
• Make connections between students’ comments to encourage dialogue.
  
• Call on nonparticipants. (This will be less threatening if they have had an opportunity to prepare ahead of time through a writing task).
  
• Be tactful in correcting misinformation or wrong answers.
  
• Remember that quieter students may feel safer contributing in a small group discussion.
  
• Summarize student input on the board, when appropriate, to make it clear that the ideas students generate are an important part of their learning.

Effective questioning strategies

• Gear discussion questions to the learning objectives.
  o Recall or comprehension questions are useful for checking students’ understanding of material. They don’t usually generate dynamic whole-class discussion, but can work in small groups if groups are then responsible for “teaching” the rest of the class.
  o Analysis questions are suitable for helping students comprehend a difficult reading assignment, by identifying patterns or breaking ideas down into component parts.
  o Application questions ask students to apply a concept to a particular instance. They can aid understanding and retention, sometimes create controversy or highlight “sticky” spots in the material.
  o Synthesis questions guide students to pull together disparate readings or ideas to create a new overarching theme, or to consider implications of course material.
  o Evaluation questions encourage students to make choices based on evidence.
  
• Try to get students to focus on specifics (e.g. “What words stand out in this passage?” “What was the most memorable point from the article?” “What idea do you most agree/disagree with?”. . . “Why?”), rather than asking completely open-ended questions (“What did you think about the article?”).
  
• Pause 5-10 seconds after asking a question, to allow students to frame a response.

Pitfalls to avoid:

• Guess-what’s-in-my-head or fill-in-the-blank questions. (Sometimes students think this is what you’re after even if it isn’t. Try to start the quarter by making it clear you value their ideas, and are not leading a “recitation session.”)
• Looking for confirmation of your own ideas (e.g., ending questions with “. . .isn’t it?” or “. . .right?”)
• Allowing students’ misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the material to pass without correction.
• Assuming students start with the same level of understanding you have.
• Trick questions and “devil’s advocate” positions. Use these techniques with care: students may feel betrayed and/or confused.
• Following the same pattern for discussion day after day. (Instead, vary activities: writing exercises, small group work, debates, student presentations, mini-lectures, lab-type activities.)
• Getting angry or frustrated if students aren’t participating. (Instead, try switching gears or do one of the idea-generating activities suggested above.)

For further reference:

Stephen Brookfield and Stephen Preskill, Discussion as a way of teaching : tools and techniques for democratic classrooms (1999, Jossey-Bass).

John C. Bean, Engaging Ideas: the Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom (2001, Jossey-Bass).

Wilbert J. McKeachie, Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers
(1999, Houghton Mifflin).

Barbara Gross Davis, Tools for Teaching (1993, Jossey-Bass).